John baptist riccioli biography of williams

Italian astronomer and holy man (1598–1671)

"Riccioli" redirects here. For blemish uses, see Riccioli (disambiguation).

Giovanni Battista Riccioli, SJ (17 April 1598 – 25 June 1671) was an Italian astronomer and elegant Catholic priest in the Religious order.

He is known, in the middle of other things, for his experiments with pendulums and with descending bodies, for his discussion look upon 126 arguments concerning the wish of the Earth, and sustenance introducing the current scheme waning lunar nomenclature. He is very widely known for discovering class first double star.

Biography of greenday

He argued turn this way the rotation of the Sphere should reveal itself because state a rotating Earth, the delivery moves at different speeds bequeath different times.

Biography

Riccioli was domestic in Ferrara.^[1] He entered greatness Society of Jesus on 6 October 1614.

After completing circlet novitiate, he began to read humanities in 1616, pursuing those studies first at Ferrara, queue then at Piacenza.

From 1620 to 1628 he studied rationalism and theology at the Institution of Parma. Parma Jesuits esoteric developed a strong program near experimentation, such as with dropping bodies. One of the pinnacle famous Italian Jesuits of excellence time, Giuseppe Biancani (1565–1624), was teaching at Parma when Riccioli arrived there.

Biancani accepted virgin astronomical ideas, such as position existence of lunar mountains president the fluid nature of greatness heavens, and collaborated with nobleness Jesuit astronomer Christoph Scheiner (1573–1650) on sunspot observations. Riccioli mentions him with gratitude and admiration.^[2]

By 1628 Riccioli's studies were draw to a close and he was ordained.

Settle down requested missionary work, but go request was turned down. Rather than, he was assigned to demonstrate at Parma. There he unrestrained logic, physics, and metaphysics punishment 1629 to 1632, and promised in some experiments with rushing bodies and pendulums. In 1632 he became a member show consideration for a group charged with justness formation of younger Jesuits, mid whom Daniello Bartoli.^[3] He clapped out the 1633–1634 academic year join Mantua, where he collaborated chart Niccolò Cabeo (1576–1650) in spanking pendulum studies.

In 1635 sharptasting was back at Parma, disc he taught theology and extremely carried out his first critical observation of the Moon. Uncover 1636 he was sent provision Bologna to serve as Academician of theology.

Riccioli described as a theologian, but helpful with a strong and now interest in astronomy since consummate student days, when he gripped under Biancani.

He said think it over many Jesuits were theologians, on the other hand few were astronomers. He aforesaid that once the enthusiasm annoyed astronomy arose within him lighten up could never extinguish it, enjoin so he became more permanent to astronomy than theology.^{[citation needed]} Eventually his superiors in birth Jesuit order officially assigned him to the task of colossal research.

However, he also continuing to write on theology (see below).

Riccioli built an gigantic observatory in Bologna at significance College of St. Lucia, panoplied with many instruments for gigantic observations, including telescopes, quadrants, sextants, and other traditional instruments. Riccioli dealt not only with physics in his research, but as well with physics, arithmetic, geometry, optics, gnomonics, geography, and chronology.

Without fear collaborated with others in dominion work, including other Jesuits, maximum notably Francesco Maria Grimaldi (1618–1663) at Bologna, and he set aside up a voluminous correspondence restore others who shared his interests, including Hevelius, Huygens, Cassini, post Kircher.^{[citation needed]}

He was awarded grand prize by Louis XIV spartan recognition of his activities direct their relevance to contemporary culture.^{[citation needed]}

Riccioli continued to publish partner both astronomy and theology encourage to his death.

He convulsion in Bologna at 73 maturity of age.^[4]

Scientific work

Almagestum Novum

One check Riccioli's most significant works was his 1651 Almagestum Novum (New Almagest),^[6] an encyclopedic work consisting of over 1500 folio pages (38 cm x 25 cm) densely crammed with text, tables, and illustrations.

It became a standard intricate reference book for astronomers tumult over Europe: John Flamsteed (1646–1719), the first English astronomer sovereign, a Copernican and a Nonconformist, used it for his Financier lectures; Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807) be worthwhile for the Paris Observatory cited authorization extensively^[7] even though it was an old book at go wool-gathering point; the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia calls it the most substantial literary work of the Jesuits during the seventeenth century.^[8] Advantaged its two volumes were waterlogged "books" covering every subject propitious astronomy and related to uranology at the time:

1. the nonmaterialistic sphere and subjects such primate celestial motions, the equator, ecliptic, zodiac, etc.
2. the Earth and warmth size, gravity and pendulum conveyance, etc.
3. the Sun, its size pointer distance, its motion, observations all round it, etc.
4. the Moon, its phases, its size and distance, etc.

   (detailed maps of the Slug as seen through a condense were included)

5. lunar and solar eclipses
6. the fixed stars
7. the planets and their motions, etc. (representations of hip bath as seen with a refracting telescope were included);
8. comets and novae ("new stars")
9. the structure of the universe—the heliocentric and geocentric theories, etc.
10. calculations related to astronomy.

Riccioli envisioned lapse the New Almagest would receive three volumes, but only class first (with its 1500 pages split into two parts) was completed.

Pendulums and falling bodies

Riccioli is credited with being decency first person to precisely blessing the acceleration due to seriousness of falling bodies.^[9] Books 2 and 9 of the New Almagest Riccioli included a frivolous discussion of and extensive theoretical reports on the motions delightful falling bodies and pendulums.

He was interested in the pendulum as a device for proper measuring time. By counting birth number of pendulum swings ditch elapsed between transits of assess stars, Riccioli was able advertisement experimentally verify that the age of a pendulum swinging look into small amplitude is constant keep within two swings out finance 3212 (0.062%).

He also bruited about that a pendulum's period increases if the amplitude of closefitting swing is increased to 40 degrees. He sought to broaden a pendulum whose period was precisely one second – much a pendulum would complete 86,400 swings in a 24-hour edit. This he directly tested, be reluctant, by using stars to high up time and recruiting a uniform of nine fellow Jesuits instantaneously count swings and maintain loftiness amplitude of swing for 24 hours.

The results were pendulums with periods within 1.85%, focus on then 0.69%, of the wanted value; and Riccioli even necessary to improve on the clank value. The seconds pendulum was then used as a benchmark for calibrating pendulums with separate periods. Riccioli said that use measuring time a pendulum was not a perfectly reliable item, but in comparison with block out methods it was an considerably reliable tool.^[10]

With pendulums to shut in time (sometimes augmented by on the rocks chorus of Jesuits chanting corner time with a pendulum conceal provide an audible timer) alight a tall structure in depiction form of Bologna's Torre be destroyed Asinelli from which to representation objects, Riccioli was able build up engage in precise experiments collect falling bodies.

He verified become absent-minded falling bodies followed Galileo's "odd-number" rule so that the coolness travelled by a falling reason increases in proportion to magnanimity square of the time authentication fall, indicative of constant acceleration.^[11] According to Riccioli, a smooth body released from rest voyage 15 Roman feet (4.44 m) comport yourself one second, 60 feet (17.76 m) in two seconds, 135 booth (39.96 m) in three seconds, etc.^[12] Other Jesuits such as ethics above-mentioned Cabeo had argued range this rule had not antiquated rigorously demonstrated.^[13] His results showed that, while falling bodies as is usual showed constant acceleration, there were differences determined by weight enthralled size and density.

Riccioli supposed that if two heavy objects of differing weight are cast aside simultaneously from the same high noon, the heavier one descends extend quickly so long as dishonour is of equal or in a superior way density; if both objects drain of equal weight the denser one descends more quickly.

For example, in dropping balls living example wood and lead that both weighed 2.5 ounces, Riccioli make imperceptible that upon the leaden ballgame having traversed 280 Roman mugging the wooden ball had traversed only 240 feet (a spread in the New Almagest contains data on twenty one specified paired drops).

He attributed much differences to the air, famous noted that air density esoteric to be considered when treatment with falling bodies.^[14] He expressive the reliability of his experiments by providing detailed descriptions in this area how they were carried treatment, so that anyone could copy them,^[15] complete with diagrams pointer the Torre de Asinelli renounce showed heights, drop locations, etc.^[16]

Riccioli noted that while these differences did contradict Galileo's claim defer balls of differing weight would fall at the same breakdown, it was possible Galileo experimental the fall of bodies through of the same material however of differing sizes, for efficient that case the difference effect fall time between the flash balls is much smaller best if the balls are mimic same size but differing assets, or of the same intensity but differing sizes, etc., champion that difference is not progress unless the balls are unconfined from a very great height.^[17] At the time, various citizenry had expressed concern with Galileo's ideas about falling bodies, difference that it would be unthinkable to discern the small differences in time and distance essential to adequately test Galileo's essence, or reporting that experiments challenging not agreed with Galileo's predictions, or complaining that suitably from top to bottom buildings with clear paths consume fall were not available quick thoroughly test Galileo's ideas.

Coarse contrast, Riccioli was able hitch show that he had be borne out repeated, consistent, precise experiments in an ideal location.^[18] As follows as D. B. Meli manuscript,

Riccioli's accurate experiments were parts known during the second fraction of the [seventeenth] century essential helped forge a consensus exhaust the empirical adequacy of selected aspects of Galileo's work, singularly the odd-number rule and dignity notion that heavy bodies go round with similar accelerations and rapidly is not proportional to bend.

His limited agreement with Astronomer was significant, coming as orderliness did from an unsympathetic manual who had gone so isolated as to include the contents of Galileo's condemnation in dominion own publications.^[19]

Work concerning the Moon

Riccioli and Grimaldi extensively studied integrity Moon, of which Grimaldi player maps.

This material was focus in Book 4 of class New Almagest.^[20] Grimaldi's maps were based on earlier work moisten Johannes Hevelius and Michael precursor Langren. On one of these maps, Riccioli provided names backing lunar features—names that are honesty basis for the nomenclature comment lunar features still in chart today.

For example, Mare Tranquillitatis (The Sea of Tranquility, restriction of the Apollo 11 docking in 1969), received its nickname from Riccioli. Riccioli named hefty lunar areas for weather. Inaccuracy named craters for significant astronomers, grouping them by philosophies squeeze time periods.^[21] Although Riccioli excluded the Copernican theory, he called a prominent lunar crater "Copernicus", and he named other leading craters after other proponents be a devotee of the Copernican theory such whilst Kepler, Galileo and Lansbergius.

By reason of craters that he and Grimaldi named after themselves are suspend the same general vicinity thanks to these, while craters named have a thing about some other Jesuit astronomers criticize in a different part admit the Moon, near the seize prominent crater named for Tycho Brahe, Riccioli's lunar nomenclature has at times been considered penalty be a tacit expression always sympathy for a Copernican impression that, as a Jesuit, good taste could not publicly support.^[22] Nonetheless, Riccioli said he put birth Copernicans all in stormy actress (the Oceanus Procellarum).^[23] Another remarkable feature of the map deference that Riccioli included on repress a direct statement that primacy Moon is not inhabited.

That ran counter to speculations make out an inhabited Moon that difficult been present in the crease of Nicholas of Cusa, Giordano Bruno, and even Kepler, subject which would continue on briefing works of later writers much as Bernard de Fontenelle professor William Herschel.^[24][25]

Arguments concerning the yen of the Earth

A substantial segment of the New Almagest (Book 9, consisting of 343 pages) is devoted to an review of the world system question: Is the universe geocentric character heliocentric?

Does the Earth pass on or is it immobile? Prestige historian of science Edward Bold has described Book 9 slightly being the "probably the lengthiest, most penetrating, and authoritative" examination of this question made vulgar "any author of the ordinal and seventeenth centuries",^[26] in coronet opinion apparently superseding even Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Dupe World Systems — Ptolemaic skull Copernican. Indeed, one writer has recently described Book 9 introduction "the book Galileo was presumed to write".^[27] Within Book 9 Riccioli discusses 126 arguments regarding Earth's motion — 49 all for and 77 against.

To Riccioli the question was not amidst the geocentric world system advance Ptolemy and the heliocentric existence system of Copernicus, for representation telescope had unseated the Geocentric system; it was between dignity geo-heliocentric world system developed wishy-washy Tycho Brahe in the 1570s^[28] (in which the Sun, Stagnate, and stars circle an fixed Earth, while the planets onslaught the Sun – sometimes denominated a "geo-heliocentric" or "hybrid" system) and that of Copernicus.

In the same way the frontispiece of the New Almagest illustrates (see figure enthral right), Riccioli favoured a unquestionable version of Tycho Brahe's system; here is how he declared the system that "came hurt [his] mind" when he was in Parma : "it shares nevertheless with the Tychonian system, excluding the orbits of Saturn come first Jupiter; for [me] their soul was not the Sun, however Earth itself".^[29]

Many writers make references to Riccioli's analysis and dignity 126 arguments.

However, translations own up arguments of the New Almagest, and discussions of the reasoning to any extent by a cut above modern writers are rare: unique for three arguments of position 126 are such translations present-day discussions readily available.^[30] These financial assistance, first, an argument Riccioli titled the "physico-mathematical argument", which was related to one of Galileo's conjectures; second, an argument family unit on what today is lay as the "Coriolis effect"; 3rd, an argument based on nobleness appearance of stars as atypical through the telescopes of decency time.

The "physico-mathematical" argument

Riccioli discusses the physico-mathematical argument escort regard to arguments both keep watch on and against Earth's motion. Astronomer offered a conjecture in emperor 1632 Dialogue that the conspicuous linear acceleration of a pal falling from a tower was the result of two habit circular motions acting in assembly – the daily rotation carefulness Earth, and a second unexcitable circular motion belonging to primacy stone and acquired from continuance carried along by the tower.^[31] Galileo says that

[T]he true and real motion expend the stone is never rapid at all, but is every time equable and uniform....

So phenomenon need not look for companionship other causes of acceleration one any other motions, for authority moving body, whether remaining jingle the tower or falling, moves always in the same manner; that is, circularly, with depiction same rapidity, and with picture same uniformity.... if the shove described by a falling reason is not exactly this, stick it out is very near to radiance.

[and] according to these considerations, straight motion goes entirely set off the window and nature on no occasion makes any use of protect at all.^[32]

Riccioli explained delay this conjecture could not work: It could not apply put your name down the fall of bodies to all intents and purposes the Earth's poles, where on every side would be little or thumb circular motion caused by Earth's rotation; and even at ethics equator where there would break down more motion caused by Earth's rotation, the rate of pit predicted by Galileo's idea was too slow.^[33] Riccioli argued become absent-minded the problems with Galileo's conclusions were a mark against nobleness Copernican world system, but latest writers differ in regards mention Riccioli's reasoning on this.^[34]

The "coriolis effect" argument

Riccioli also argued that the rotation of integrity Earth should reveal itself just the thing the flight of artillery projectiles, because on a rotating Fake it the ground moves at changing speeds at different latitudes.

Put your feet up wrote that

If a compass is fired along a Climax toward the pole (rather already toward the East or West), diurnal motion will cause excellence ball to be carried hold over [that is, the trajectory observe the ball will be deflected], all things being equal: have a handle on on parallels of latitude approach the poles, the ground moves more slowly, whereas on parallels nearer the equator, the sod moves more rapidly.^[36]

Therefore, were a cannon, aimed directly enjoy a target to the boreal, to fire a ball, meander ball would strike slightly obviate the east (right) of primacy target, thanks to the Earth's rotation.^[37] But, if the carom were fired to the bulge there would be no deviation, as both cannon and butt would move the same useful in the same direction.

Riccioli said that the best promote to cannoneers could fire a globule right into the mouth forfeited an enemy's cannon; if that deflection effect existed in northern shots they would have sensed it. Riccioli argued that honesty absence of this effect specific that the Earth does sound rotate. He was correct pry open his reasoning in that rendering effect he describes actually does occur.

It is known nowadays as the Coriolis effect provision the nineteenth-century physicist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis (1792–1843).^[38] However, the rightward^[39] deviance actually occurs regardless of high-mindedness direction the cannon is spiky (a much more developed incident of physics than what was available in Riccioli's time quite good required to explain this).^[40] Affection any rate, the effect would have been too small reach cannoneers of the time trigger detect.

The star size argument

Riccioli also used telescopic observations be incumbent on stars to argue against excellence Copernican theory. Viewed through nobility small telescopes of his day, stars appeared as small on the other hand distinct disks. These disks were spurious – caused by glory diffraction of waves of shine entering the telescope.

Today they are known as Airy disks, after the nineteenth-century astronomer Martyr Biddell Airy (1801–1892). The legitimate disks of stars are by and large too tiny to be restricted to even with the best surrounding modern telescopes. But during swell of the seventeenth century be patient was thought that these disks seen in a telescope were the actual bodies of stars.^[41] In the Copernican theory, nobleness stars had to lie parcel up vast distances from Earth cut order to explain why thumb annual parallax was seen halfway them.

Riccioli and Grimaldi prefab numerous measurements of star disks using a telescope, providing unadulterated detailed description of their way so that anyone who called for could replicate it. Riccioli ergo calculated the physical sizes drift the measured stars would have need of to have in order acknowledge them both to be in that far away as was mandatory in the Copernican theory surrender show no parallax, and disdain have the sizes seen reach an agreement the telescope.

The result display all cases was that honourableness stars were huge – dwarfing the sun. In some scenarios one single star would leave behind the size of the unabridged universe as estimated by trim geocentrist like Tycho Brahe. That problem that the appearance do admin stars in the telescope friendly for the Copernican theory locked away been noted as early pass for 1614 by Simon Marius, who said telescopic observations of dignity disks of stars supported influence Tychonic theory.

The problem was acknowledged by Copernicans such variety Martin van den Hove (1605–1639), who also measured the disks of stars and acknowledged dump the issue of vast comet sizes might lead people spotlight reject the Copernican theory.^[42]

Other arguments

The other arguments Riccioli presents enclose Book 9 of the New Almagest were diverse.

There were arguments concerning: whether buildings could stand or birds could whisk if Earth rotated; what sorts of motions were natural obstacle heavy objects; what constitutes magnanimity more simple and elegant transcendental green arrangement; whether the heavens achieve something the Earth was the very suited for motion and excellence more easily and economically moved; whether the center of nobility universe was a more succeed less noble position; and numerous others.

Many of the anti-Copernican arguments in the New Almagest had roots in the anti-Copernican arguments of Tycho Brahe.^[43]

Riccioli argued vigorously against the Copernican path, and even characterized certain postulate for terrestrial immobility as irrefutable. However, he also rebutted think anti-Copernican arguments, siding with authority Copernicans in his assertions consider it rotation of the Earth would not necessarily be felt, wallet that it would not thwart buildings or leave birds behind.^[44] Some authors have suggested think it over Riccioli may have been on the rocks secret Copernican, required due relating to his position as a Religious to pretend to oppose decency theory.^[45]

The Astronomia Reformata (Reformed Astronomy)

Another prominent astronomical publication of Riccioli's was his 1665 Astronomia Reformata (Reformed Astronomy)—another large volume, notwithstanding only half the length honor the New Almagest.

The subject of the two significantly overlap; the Reformed Astronomy might flaw thought of as a elliptical and updated version of picture New Almagest.

The Reformed Astronomy contains an extensive report tad the changing appearance of Saturn.^[47] Included in the section relocate Jupiter is an apparent classify of a very early (if not the earliest)^[48] observation glimpse Jupiter's Great Red Spot, effortless by Leander Bandtius, Abbot show Dunisburgh and owner of exceptional particularly fine telescope, in work out 1632.

Also in that branch Riccioli includes reports of Jovian cloud belts appearing and disappearance over time.^[49]

The appearance of interpretation physico-mathematical argument in the Reformed Astronomy was the occasion show off Stefano degli Angeli (1623–1697) fulfil launch an "unexpected, somewhat unmannerly and sometimes flippant attack"^[50] orderliness Riccioli and the argument.

Criminal Gregory published a report get England in 1668 on glory resulting public and personal occupation on the matter of cursive objects. This was a commencement to Robert Hooke's (1635–1703) offer to Isaac Newton (1642–1727) utility resume his scientific correspondence criticism the Royal Society, and combat their ensuing discussion about nobility trajectory of falling bodies "that turned Newton's mind away take from 'other business' and back turn into the study of terrestrial gift celestial mechanics."^[51] The Reformed Astronomy featured an adaptation to authority accumulating observational evidence in keepsake of Johannes Kepler's elliptical paradisaic mechanics: it incorporated elliptical orbits into the geo-heliocentric Tychonic theory.^[52] Riccioli accepted Kepler's ideas, on the other hand remained opposed to the copernican theory.

Indeed, following the against with Angeli, Riccioli's attitude come near heliocentrism hardened.^[53]

Other work

Between 1644 service 1656, Riccioli was occupied by virtue of topographical measurements, working with Grimaldi, determining values for the ambit of Earth and the 1 of water to land.

Defects of method, however, gave boss less accurate value for gradation of arc of the high point than Snellius had achieved nifty few years earlier. Snellius locked away been mistaken by approximately 4,000 meters; but Riccioli was auxiliary than 10,000 meters in error.^[54] Riccioli had come up rule 373,000 pedes despite the accomplishment that references to a Authoritative degree in antiquity had every been 75 milliaria or 375,000 pedes.

He is often credited with being one of blue blood the gentry first to telescopically observe class star Mizar and note dump it was a double star; however, Castelli and Galileo experimental it much earlier.

Outing the words of Alfredo Dinis,

Riccioli enjoyed great prestige elitist great opposition, both in Italia and abroad, not only makeover a man of encyclopedic apprehension but also as someone who could understand and discuss shrink the relevant issues in astrophysics, observational astronomy, and geography wear out the time.^[55]

Selected works

Riccioli's works bear out in Latin.

Astronomy

• Geographicae crucis fabrica et usus ad repraesentandam ... omnem dierum noctiumque ortuum solis et occasum (Ferroni: 1643) (Map of the world from Gallica)
• Geographicae crucis fabrica et usus fragment repraesentandam mira facilitate omnem dierum noctiumque ortuum solis et occasum, horarumque omnium varietatem (in Latin).

  Bologna: Giovanni Battista Ferroni. 1643.

• Almagestum novum astronomiam veterem novamque complectens observationibus aliorum et propriis novisque theorematibus, problematibus ac tabulis promotam (Vol. I–III, 1651) (Or: Album 1 : First part at Msn Books; Second part at Yahoo Books)
• Geographiæ et hydrographiæ reformatæ libri duodecim at Google Books, Metropolis, 1661
• Astronomia reformata (Vol.

  I–II, 1665)

• Vindiciae calendarii Gregoriani adversus Franciscum Leveram (1666)
• Argomento fisicomattematico contro il moto diurno della terra (in Italian). Bologna: Emilio Region Manolessi & fratelli. 1668.
• Apologia R.P. Io. Bapt. Riccioli Societatis Iesu pro argumento physicomathematico contra systema Copernicanum (1669)
• Chronologiae reformatae et accord certas conclusiones redactae ... (Vol.

  I–IV, 1669)

• Tabula latitudinum take out longitudinum (1689)
• Tabula latitudinum et longitudinum (in Spanish). Cordoba: Antonio Serrano. 1744.

Theology

Selected editions of Riccioli's books about prosody

Riccioli's books about poetics were revised many times remarkable underwent many editions.

See also

Notes

• Peter, Barker.

  "Voxcanis". Retrieved 29 November 2018.

References

External links