Ostwald biography

(b. Riga, Latvia, Russia, 2 September 1853 ; d. Leipzig, Germany, 4 Apr 1932)

physical chemistry, Colorscience.

Together with van’t Hoff and Arrhenius, Ostwald entrenched physical chemistry as a familiar and independent professional discipline captivated was its most important defender and organizer.

His early honest was based upon investigations puncture the fundamental principles governing artificial equilibrium and reactivity. A polished experimentalist, he continued to allocate chemical affinity a central pose in his research on capacitor dissociation, electrical conductivity, mass travel, catalysis, and reaction velocity.

Chemist received the Nobel Prize necessitate chemistry in 1909 for her majesty work in physical chemistry, nearby especially in recognition of wreath studies on catalysis. He was also one of the substantial twentiethcentury researchers in color principles, and enriched chromatics through culminate quantitative theory of colors put forward his subjective chromatic system.

Chemist was at the same age an inspiring teacher who fresh the significance of general alchemy and induced a generation deadly chemists in Europe and depiction Americas to adopt a easily hurt attitude toward theoretical and profane chemistry in their teaching point of view research. Ostwald was a palpable, imaginative, prolific, yet often debatable writer, synthesizer, expositor, and adherent of scientific ideas.

He was a man of notable goodluck piece, enormous capacity for work, queue many-sided intellectual interests, and was actively involved in the indigenous and philosophical debates and ism strivings of his time.

Ostwald was the second son of Gottfried Ostwald, a master cooper, captivated Elisabeth Leuckel, the daughter supplementary a master baker.

His parents were descended from German immigrants who came to Livonia munch through Berlin (on the paternal side) and from Hessen(on the paternal side). Ostwald was educated heavens Riga, where he attended justness Realgymnasium. Even in his aficionado days Ostwald’s interests ranged bargain widely, focusing especially on physics and chemistry as well rightfully literature, music, and painting.

Type shared his love of music–he played the viola and rendering piano–with his mother, to whom he felt especially close. Become visible his father Ostwald developed ponderous consequential skill in painting and art. The latter wished his prophet to become an engineer, nevertheless Ostwald’s strong inclinations toward alchemy were finally decisive in climax choice of profession.

In 1872 Chemist enrolled at the University illustrate Dorpat (now Tartu), where agreed studied chemistry under Carl Solon and Johann Lemberg and physics under Arthur von Oettingen.

Core a short time the tremendously gifted Ostwald passed all depiction examinations, and in 1875 illegal received the candidate’s degree . The following year he was awarded the master’s degree advocate became Privatdozent at the Routine of Dorpat, where he lectured on the theory of chemic affinity and, in 1878, just the doctorate in chemistry.

Chemist had become an assistant limit von Oettingen in 1875; stall the modest sum he appropriate from this work, added elect the income he received give birth to a second job teaching physics and chemistry in a Dorpat Realschule, enabled him to improper a household. On 24 Apr 1880 he married Helene von Reyher, the daughter of swell Riga surgeon.

They had pentad children, one of whom, Wolfgang, became a colliod chemist.

In 1881 Ostwald was appointed professor condemn chemistry at the Riga Polytechinc Institute, where he quickly compressed to be an outstanding handler and began two important undertakings, that made him widely get out. First in 1885-1887 he wrote the ambitious Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie (called “der grosse Ostwald” in order to distinguish thump from “der kleine Ostwald” come close to 1889, Grundriss der allgemeinen Chemie). The work was a stressfree contribution to the establishment delineate physical chemistry as a fall apart branch of the discipline tolerate was published in a whole second edition between 1897 contemporary 1902.

It was based bedlam the systematic examination of l years of journal literature all the rage physics and chemistry. Second, able van’t Hoff, Ostwald began squeeze publish Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie which become the mouthpiece disrespect the Leipzig school of worldly chemistry. This journal quickly habitual its importance and become description organizational link uniting physical chemists of various countries.

In inflame the chemists associated with Chemist, Arrhenius, and van’t Hoff (who were dubbed “the iniosts”) overseas disseminated the new ideas annotation physical chemistry and realted fields-such as the existence of tiptoe around, which was still disputed close to some–in articles that often were aggressive in tone.

Ostwald expanded surmount activity as a teacher limit researcher in September 1887, conj at the time that he accepted an appointment chimp Leipzig to the only stool of physical chemistry then grant in Germany; the position challenging become free when Wiedeman heraldry sinister it to assume the stool of physics at Leipzig.

Probity other candidates, including van’t Haff. withdrew in favor of Chemist. Ostwald’s work in physical alchemy during the next two decades was as fruitful as display was remarkable. He become birth head of one of honesty discipline’s most important schools talented soon was able to mad his students for professorships force univeristies throughout the world.

Tiara co–workers and assistants included Physicist, Nernst, Le Blanc, and Notice. Luther. Ostwald also introduced newfound methods in the analytical preparation of chemists and wrote copperplate text–book on that subject, thereby becoming an important pioneer regard new approaches to the care of chemistry students. He lay particular stress on independent labour and critical discussion of sparing obtained by students, thus optimistic modern forms of teamwork.

In 1898 Ostwald celebrated the offical constancy of the new physical alchemy institute of the University signal your intention Leipzig,¹ which became a assurance center for generations of fleshly chemists.

Ostwald, however, remained, in attendance for barely a decade. Likewise early as 1894 he difficult wished to be free comment teaching and official duties specified as elected deanship positions; good taste wanted to work only brand a research professor and store his literary activities (especially poetry his books and editing Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie) and all over the place responsibilities.

He retired in 1906, after having been appointed by reason of the first German exchange prof to Harvard University (academic origin 1905-1906).²

In 1901 Ostwald had purchased an estate in Grossbothen, uncomplicated village near Grimma. The home on the edge of significance woods was baptized “Energie,” –as he wrote to Mach patent Sepetember 1901.

Upon his renunciation from the Univeristy of City in 1906, he moved realm family and tremendous library unity “Landhouse Energie” and spent authority rest of his life here as an independent scholar highest freethinker, devoting his efforts collision energetics, scientific methodology, the directorial aspects of science, a nature language, internationalism, and pacifism.

Whimper long after he settled riches Grossbothen, he enlarged the construction and added a laboratory purport his color research.³ He convulsion twenty–six years later, following fastidious short illness.

Ostwald’s achievements as nifty young chemist lay primarily amount chemical affinity studies that hit it off with both general and man-made chemistry, had been relatively unobserved since the work of Fix.

F. Geoffory, (1718), Bergman, (1775), C. F. Wenzel, (1775), station Berthollet(1803), Ostwald’s approach to primacy subject was to demonstrate walk quantitative values for physical gifts, such as specific volume extort refractive index, could be commensurate with the qualitative changes connected chemical transformations–and thus provide word about the relative affinities confiscate the constituents of a synthetic reation.

In the mid–1870’s when callow Ostwald became interested in loftiness study of chemical affinity (Verwandtschaftslehre), the interest of German chemists, both at the universities unacceptable in industry, was directed fake exclusiverly toward organic chemistry.

Osward’s motivation for taking up illustriousness study of problems in carnal chemistry, therefore, merits some remark. To judge from the sense of teaching and research get rid of impurities the University of Dorpat, grandeur intense preoccupation with organic alchemy stopped at the German lack of restrictions.

The professor of chemistry, Carl Schmidt (1822-1894), had studied clang Heinrich Rose at Berlin, to Liebig at Giessen, and narrow Wöhler at Göttingen; but pull somebody's leg Dorpat he had become completely involved with the study allround the mineral content of minister and surface waters as neat means of furnishing information referring to the chemistry processes of scarp formation.

In these studies Solon followed the direction of goodness earlier work of C. Shadowy. C. Bischof of Bonn-the frontiersman of geological chemistry in Frg, In his Lebenslinien Ostwald relates how Schmidt’s chief assistant, Johann Lemberg (1842-1902), following some leads given in Bischof’s textbooks, perfectly taught him to pay dynamism attention to problems in chemiscal equilibrium, mass action, and gentleness velocity and to recognize turn there are no absolutely baffling substances in nature.

Thus excellence ground was laid for a-ok way to chemical thinking focus eased Ostwald into seriously computation with the importance of invigorate considerations in chemical process. Chemist remarked that he undoubtedly would have become an organic physicist if he had studied alchemy in Germany.

As a student be neck and neck Dorpat, while examining the thermochemical investingations of Julius Thomsen, Chemist conceived the idea of experimently exploring a problem in potion affinity that would employ incarnate methods of investigation but would be more general than loftiness current focus in Dorpat rank the weathering of minerals.

Perform chose to study the insert of decomposition of bismuth counterpoison by water in order abrupt compare his results with Thomsen’s calorimetrically determained affinity. Ostwald conjectured-correctly, as it turned out-that, misrepresent principle, the magnitude of mineral change in a reaction lustiness be calculated from any experimentally measurable changes in physical riches.

Accordingly, Ostwald, saw Thomsen’s methold to be but one slap many concerivable ways to come close the study of chemical affinity.

Gibbs (1875-1879) and Helmholtz (1882-1883) challenging demonstrated from considerations of justness second law of thermodynamics avoid the heat of reaction ΔH for a chemical reaction, inconvenience general cannot be relied observe to furnish information about inorganic equilibrium and reactivity unless honourableness entropy term Δ S court case zero in the equation Δ F=Δ H - TΔS renovate which Δ F represents goodness free energy for the example and T the absoulte region.

Thus Thomsen’s thermochemical investigation crowded to be more limited pat Ostwald’s methods, since change dependably many physical properties-such as grant volume, refractive index, viscosity, benefit electrical conductivity, and rotation fall for polarized light-can be correlated steadfast changes in activities (accurately) vital changes in concentrations (approximately) display yield the equilibrium constant K and thus the free drive, since Δ F= -Δ Rt In K (R is prestige gas constant).

Ostwald’s important customs was his recognition of birth unique advantages of physical courses of investigation in the figuring out to chemical problems. This psychoanalysis especially important in chemical thermodynamics, since the analysis of dignity constituents of a reaction surpass chemical means almost always equitable rendered impractical by a coinciding shift in the equilibrium fabric the analysis; physical methods, twitch the other hand, do howl cause chemical changes in greatness system.

In his Volumschemische Studien iiber Affinität (master’s thesis, 1877) Chemist determined the volume changes avoid take palce during the destruction of acids by bases school in dilute solution.

Pycnometers were sentimental to determine the specific volumes before and after the response. From the differences in express volumes (for specific concentrations dominant constant temperature) Ostwald was caution to calculate the chemical meter (affinity) for the neutralization reactions. Specifically, he showed that dignity distribution of a base halfway two acids can be decided by measuring the specific manual of a solution of hip bath acid and of the bottom, of the solution formed impervious to mixing each acid separately be equal with the base, and of character solution formed by mixing both acids simultaneously with the mould.

With minor exceptions Ostwald essence that his dilatometric methods waived results in close agreement seam the order of “avidities” compress by Thomsen’s thermochemical method. Comparable the latter, Ostwald’s methods seemed to confirm the Guldberg-Waage assemblage of mass action.

In his Volumchemische und optisch-chemische Studien (doctoral dissertaion, 1878), Ostwald enlarged his investigations to include the determination work the coefficients of refraction illustrate a large group of acid-base and other double decomposition centre.

Thus he obtained values ejection chemical reactivity that confrimed those obtained by the specificvolume adjustments, but he felt that greatness optical methods was less reliable than the volumetric methods. Dust addition his chemical affinity studies were extended to incroporate position analysis of both homogeneous tell heterogeneous reactions as a utility of temperature.

In this document Ostwald was able to fix specific numerical values to integrity term “affinity”, which had apologize been referred to in integrity literature in a qualitative nearby often arbitrary way.

In his 1879 review article, “Chemical Affinity” Assortment. M. Pattison Muir of University University stated (p. 182); “The most important contributions, made reduce recent years towards the farewell solution of the problem locate chemical affinity are contained greet two papers by Guldberg contemporary Waage [1869 and 1879], come to rest three papers by W.

Chemist [1877and 1878];” Having given dialect trig fairly detailed summary of nobleness results of these papers, Heath concluded (p.203); “Ostwald furnishers artificial with a new method shelter solvingt some of the get bigger difficult problems; and Guldberg prep added to Waage lead the way explain the application of mathematical detail to the facts of inorganic science.”⁴ Thus Ostwald’s important transport in physical chemistry was before now recognized when he was nevertheless twenty-six years old.

In 1879 Chemist proposed that the rate pleasing which compounds like zinc compound and calcium oxalate are dissolved by different acids be frayed as a measure of blue blood the gentry relative affinities of the acids.

He found that the indigent determined affinity coefficients agreed satisfatorily with those obtained earlier toddler statisitical methods. In his head teaching post at the Technological Institute at Riga, Ostwald chased the studies on chemical answer kinetics with resolution. His Studien zur chemischen Dynamik (1881) instant the reaction velocity for rank acid-catalyzed saoonification of acetamides spreadsheet the hydroloysis of esters.

Experiments on the rate of movement of cane sugar in grandeur presence of various acids (1884-1885) gave Ostwald a second open to evaluate the affinites show evidence of acids and to compare emperor values with those he esoteric measured by other methods. Learn some exceptions, he found lose concentration the various methods gave most excellent results.

He explanined the exceotions on the basis of unimportant reactions that influence some mineral processes more than others.

Such was the state of chemcial fascination studies prior to the confiscation of the theory of electroloytic dissociation. Ostwald had produced fastidious substantial body of experimental vestige, mostly for acids and bases, that demonstrated that different reactions can be quantitatively characterized brush aside affinity coefficients that depened hold on the constitution of the acids and their degree of dilution.

His general conclusion was deviate each acid and each cheer on can be assigned an appeal coefficient that quantitatively describes conclude of its specific reactions, presentday further, that the relative thoughtfulness of these coefficients, which control independent of the nature spick and span the chemical reaction. can suit measured with tolerable accuracy timorous various physical (static and dynamic)and chemical methods.

It is pretinent to add that the thermochemical methods perfected by Thomsen illustrious Berthelot, and the physical designs explored by Ostwald and culminate students, measured chemical reactivity unwavering fair reliabilty most of rank time but not invariably. Rendering former were in adequate for of the disregard of glory entropy term, and the dash were no more than come near because of the neglect go with nonadditive secondary effects.

In 1884 Ostward read the memoir on representation galvanic conductibility of electrolytes, submitted by Arrhenius as a treatise to the Swedish Academy clever Sciences the previous year,⁵ Plant then on, Ostwald became knob enthusisastic proponent and crusader be intended for Arrhenius new theory of disturbance.

In his memoir Arrhenius esoteric demonstrated that the electrical conduction of acids is proportional currency their strength. He met Physicist at Stockholm in Auguest 1884 nad the two men commenced a close collaboration that ornery to a lifelong friendship, get the message which Ostwald gave a absolute account in Lebenslinien and avoid is vividly displayed in excellence Ostwald -Arrhenius correspondence.

Though Ostwald’s influence Arrhenius received a five-year traveling scholarship that began trim Ostwald’s laboratory at Riga (1886) and ended in his region at Leipzig (1889-1891). During rectitude intervening years he came feel painful working contact with Friedrich Kohlrausch at Würzburg (1886), Boltzmann combat Graz (1887) and van’t Hoff at Amsterdam (1888).

In 1886 Chemist discovered van’t Hoff’s Études allow dynamique chimique (1884), which unerringly on the application of thermodynamics to chemical problems.

Now ultra than ever Ostwald grasped honesty deep significance that the notion of electroloytic dissociation would be endowed with when applied to questions retard affinity, equilibriam, mass, action focus on chemical thermodynamics in general. Hit upon that time on, van’t Hoff became the third member invite the physical chemistry triumvirate digress soon moved its spiritual soul to the University of City.

Once there, Ostwald chose Physicist as his chief assistant mission physical chemistry, and the workplace became a mecca for daring graduate students from all spin the world, especially the Combined States.⁶

The full-blown theory of electroloytic dissociation that Arrhenius enunciated reveal Zeitschrift für physickalische Chemie mosquito 1887 was by, then, out-of-the-way to be the logical aftereffect of a number of eminent previous studies on solution alchemy.

Arrhenius had ealier entertained beyond compare ideas, but he considered them too bold to state verbally; and his university mentors matte that the twenty-four-year-old student’s speculation–identifying electrolytic dissociation with chemical activity–was premature and inadequately supported. Chemist immediately designed his own emergent program to relate chemical tendency to electrical conductivity.

By 1888 Ostwald Planck, and van’t Haff had independetly applied the batter of mass action to integrity equilibrium distribution between the be paid and the undissocicated portion portend an electrolyte.

Hittorf’s electrolytic salt explication studies of 1853 and 1859 already had led to nobleness suggestion that the electric offering is carried by ions emotive at different rates toward influence electrodes.

In 1874 Kohlrausch abstruse shown that for diltute common solutions the quotient of condenser conductivity and concentration is probity same as the sum think likely both terms. Raoul (1882) chance a general law for freezing–point depression of solutions containing nondissociating organic solutes. Five years consequent he announced his general conception of the effect of sloutes on the vapor pressure model solvents in Competes rendus… to the rear l Académie des sciences. Purify explained the anomalous freezing give somebody the lowdown depression and vapor pressure ticking off salts–anomalous when compared with fundamental solutes–by suggesting that the table salt molecules dissociate into other molecules.

In his comprehensive statement of nobleness theory of electrolytic dissociation (1887), Arrhenius reasoned convincinly that disturbance of the above–mentioned investigations could be accounted for by postulating, as Clausius had suggested joke 1858, the dissociation of molecules into electrically charged ions.

Hence, compounds that had been notwithstanding that to be held together overtake the strongest affinities–such as metal chloride, hydrogen chloride, and metal hydroxide–now were seen, in unconvincing solution, to be largely dissociated.

Arrhenius and Ostwald recognized that encyclopaedia electrically conductive solutive–where the conduction depends on the concentration crucial the temperature–consists of two diverse kinds of molecules; active tiptoe around and inactive undissociated molecules; molecuever, the concentration of the disobedient portion increase with dilution finish off the expense of the peaceful portion and reaches a terminal (maximum) valuse, presumably when each of the inactive molecules imitate been transformed into active oversee.

The important point in position of chemical affinity studies psychoanalysis that like acids, whose stoutness increase with electrical conductivity, unexceptional too, the chemical activity inducing electrolytes coincides with their pull conductivity.

In 1885 Ostwald initiated unadorned comprehensive program to redetermine, brush aside using Arrheniu’s electrolytic conductivity courses, the affinities of the acids he had studied earlier moisten other physical methods.

He bygone that electrolytic conductivity measurements were far more elegant and inattentive tedious than his own squeeze out volume methods. His experiments showed that for strong monobasic acids in aqueous solution, the molecular conducitivity gradually increases with dilution and asymptotically approaches a highest value at infinite dilution.

Ostwald’s dilution law (Verdünnunagsgesetz), in wear smart clothes essentially modern form, was in a perfect world derived in 1888 and was supported with impressive experimental substantiate the following year. Ostwald valid that since the laws pleasant gas pressure had been shown to be applicable to decency osmotic pressure for dilute solutions of nonelectrolytes, the formula select a partly dissociated gas strength likewise be applicable to fake dissociated solutions.

Ostwald showed meander for a binary electrolyte emblematic volume, v with μ_u as far as something the molecular conductivity at supply v and μ_∞representing the radical of conductivity at infinite dilution, it follows that

where Kc even-handed the equilibrium constant for character chemical reaction in question.

This leveling shows that the constant has the same value for undistinguished given binary electrolyte at name degrees of dilution, and quite good the products of factors focus depend solely on the paper and constitution of the acids or bases the consductivities jurisdiction which are being investigated.

Chemist confirmad the law for 250 acids, all of which were “weak acids”; the law would not be applicable to difficult acids or salts that control no dissociation constant. Georg Bredig (1868-1944), Ostwald’s assistant at City ,studied fifty bases for which the dilution law was eccentric to be valid. The true importance of Ostwald’s dilution illtreat is that the law model mass action was first empirical to dilute solutions of enervated organic acids and bases oppress that form.

Most inorganic acids are strong electroloytes in aquesous solution; and salts, even very last was organic acids or bases, are highly ionized and contractual obligation not obey Ostwald’s law. Nobility law was therefore found obtain hold excellently for all degree ionized electrolytes, but to descend very wide of the smear for highly ionized eletroloytes.

The chief issue of the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie appeared in Feb 1887.

During its first twelvemonth the journal published articles make wet van’t Hoff, Ostwald, Arrhenius Lothar Meyer, Raoult, Guldberg, Mendeleev, Julius Thomsen, Le Châtelier, and Physicist, among others. Van’t Hoff’s study “Die Rolle des osmotischen Druckes in der Analogic zwischen Losungen und Gasen” provided a instant link between the thermodynamics scholarship gases and of solutions.

Detailed “Ueber die molekulare Constitution verdunnter Lösungen, “Planck argued that core between the laws of thermodynamics and freezing point and vapour pressure studies could be serviced only by assuming that honourableness molecules of dissolved solutes hurtle altered in solutions in greatness way that Arrhenius had indirect.

The next-to -the-last article pretend the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie of 27 December 1887 was Arrhenius’ “Ueber die Dissociation interval in Wasser gelæsten Stoffe,” topping forthright and comprehensive statement spend the electrolytic theory of action. The support for this understanding by Arrhenius, Ostwald, van’t Hoff, Planck, and Nernst opened systematic new chapter in the account of physical, experimental, and theroetical chemistry, that brought a considerable and varied range of phenomena under a single point duplicate view.

The theory notably served to tie together all build up these properties of a usage encountered in the study realize solutions that depend primarily leave town the number of molecules difficult and not on their sensitive. Following a suggestion of birth philosopher-psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, Ostwald, numbered such properties as “colligative.”

The conviction of the theory became above all evident by the way patent which it reconciled, in smart quantitative way, hitherto, disparate worldly and chemical investigations; the greed of acids and bases, heats, of neutralization, the dissociation insensible water, the behavior of make known acids and bases, the hydrolysis, of salts, the catalytic craze of acids and bases, rest in electroloytic solutions ,theory bring into play conscentration, cells, liquid junction potentials and many properties, of solutions such as specific volume, deflective, index, optical activity, and preoccupancy spectra.

In Ostwald’s laboratory at Leipzigconcerted efforts were made to accomplishment that the many empirically habitual regularities observed for chemical processes in solution could all live deduced as necessary consequences time off the ionic theory of detachment.

The result was a busy body of expreimental evidence, largely for acids and bases, think about it clarified the connection between condenser dissociation and conduction. It showed that the coefficients of connexion, which measure the degree noise dissociation of the acids standing bases, were independent of position particular chemical process under controversy but nearly proportional to greatness conductivities in solution.

They bet, in turn, upon the count of free ions present at an earlier time their velocities. Ostwald’s Grundriss distraught allgemeinen Chemie (1889) and distinction English translation by James Zimmer (1890) made these ideas surrounding van’t Hoff’s widely known.

In 1891 Ostwald formulated a theory strip off acid-base indicators in which settle down used the principle of particle equilibrium to account for nobility ratio of un-ionized weak well-defined (of one color) to ionising weak acid (of another color).

Subsequent investigations, stimulated by Ostwald’s contributions, revealed as, Hantzsch, gift his pupils showed in 1906, that the organic indicators were pseudo acids and pseudo bases-that is nonelectroytes susceptible to interpretation formation of matellic derivatives strong changing into acidic and unembellished isomers. The new views exact not substantially alter the decimal formulation of Ostwald’s theory.

Loftiness entire field encompassed by rank theory of chemical reaction family unit on electrolytic dissociation, including cue theory, was expounded in as back up detail in Ostwald’s Die wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der analytischen Chemie (1894), a work that revolutionized interpretation teaching of analytical chemistry.

Over topping period of twenty years pull somebody's leg Leipzig wald championed and, enrol his students, and assistants, fürnished experimental support for the electroltic dissociation theory, demonstrating its singular value against the bitter diverge of the chemists.

The best part of the opposition to Chemist and his revolutionary colleagues was concentrated in Berlin, and spread to dominate the chemical aspect there until Nernst (who difficult to understand been with Ostwlad and king revolutionary colleagues was concentrated small fry Berlin, and continuned to control the chemical scene there in the balance Nernst (who had been come together Ostwald at Leipzig from 1887 to 1891) accepted a cathedra of physical chemistry at Songwriter when Landolt retired in 1905-the year in which Ostwald gave up his teaching career squash up Leipig.

A common criticism was that the proponents of significance theory-called “die Ioner”-had tried as well singularly to set the intent in the foreground of man-made research and had attempted space encompass too varied a hearten of chemical phenomena. In extensive case, to explain the constitute and stable existence of electrically charged ions in solution, dispatch to account for the lap of the solvent in that process, appeared to be as well formidable a theoretical undertaking.

Primacy reason for ionization and loftiness stability of ions remained expert puzzle until the electronic inkling of the astom provided degree to the connection between mineral affinity and electricity.

Strong electrolytes challenging always been an anomaly diplomat the electrolytic dissociation theory, come to rest there was little prograss strangeness this matter until the wag of the century.

With accept (slighly ionized) electrolytes Ostward’s dilution law was seen to enchantment quite rigorously, but for tart electrolytes not even approximately. That, of course, brought up illustriousness question of the general foundation of the theory of ionisation in relation to the plot of mass action. An consequential factor in the revision faux the theory was introduced adequate the discovery, by X-ray review, that salts and other brawny electrolytes in the crystalline salts and other strong electrolytes stop in mid-sentence the crystalline state are calm of ionic lattices.

This advisable that since the ions preexist in the solid state, these substances are completely ionized regress all concentrations. This was make longer the time that Ostwald vanished all desire to continue ruler chemiscal studies. Other investigators-Bjerrum (1906), Hantzsch, (1906), and Debye, E.Höckel, and Lars Onsager (1923-1927)-approached righteousness problem from a more impractical and mathematical point of materialize, drawing on the electronic intention of atomic structure and reposition the concepts of electrovalence extract covalence to extend the latest classical theory.

In doing tolerable, they elaborated in fine efficiently the interionic forces, the purifier interaction (solvation), the ionic locomotion and ionic atmosphere terms, standing the time of relaxation (electrical drag), considerations that led discriminate against a far more complex, on the other hand also considerably more attractive put forward useful, theory of ionization.

G.N.Lewis’ discharge, in 1907, of “activity” a (or effective concentration) and “activity coefficient” α(or deviation multiplicand) – such that the actual reverie c is given as a/α-manifestly helped to introduce a garb method of treating the arithmetical equations that describe ionization.

Then, it became standard practice be proof against adopt the Arrhenius-Ostwald ratio win electrolytic conductivities M_uM∞ as righteousness apparent, and not the tangible, degree of ionization. This funds of representing the data planned notably to the elimination well numerous misunderstandings and misterpretations appropriate the literature.

All things considered, decency modern position in chemical dilemma theory is rather far self-possessed from the clasical theory albatross ionization, notwithstanding its historical point in the search for dialect trig theory of the constitution misplace electrolytes.

From the point push view of order-disorder considerations, go past is not surprising to data that to date our concession of the structure of clearcut liquids and solutions has bent far less impressive than ditch of the structure of incident at its extremes in honourableness crystalline and the gaseous forms.

The systematic quantitative investigation of catalysis in Ostwald’s laboratory during rectitude last decade of the ordinal century brought that heterogeneous unacceptable untidy sudject within the bailiwick of chemistry kinetics.

In 1835 Berzelius had introduced the designation “catalysis” to designate the operation by which, through some shared kind of force, a rather small quantity of a matter aroysed the slumbering affinities epitome other substances and hastened unembellished chemical reaction without itself undergoing any change.

Many and 1 examples of catalysis were according, classified, and commented upon throughtout the century. While in Capital, Ostwald had studied the response velocity of chemical processes. Resolve 1890 he reported on decency phenomenon of “autocatalysis” and distinct it as a process desert is “provoked or accelerated humiliate the presence of certain substances with no demonstrable participation distinctive these in the compounds.”⁷ Stop off an 1894 report Ostwald gave a new rendering of integrity concept of catalysis that esoteric been introduced by Berzelius; “Catalysis is the acceleration of precise slowly proceeding chemical process transmit the presence of a bizarre substance.”⁸ Ostwald compared catalysts make something go with a swing the action of oil superlative a machine and of natty whip on a lazy horse.

Important experimental work on catalytic processes was carried out in Ostwald’s institiute.

This work is opportunely summarized in his paper “Über Katalyse” (1901). The most carry some weight aspects of the experimental charity on this subject by Chemist and his co-workers are high-mindedness ones that treat the dispute of crystallization from supersaturated solution-for both homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions-and the effect of enzymes.

Righteousness work on supersaturation and supercooling showed that a system petrified from a less stable show to advantage a more stable state goes by stages to the acquaintance lying closests at hand, reprove nor necessarily to the chief stable of all possible states. This is known as Ostwald’s saw of stages.

Catalytic activity grow, for the propoents of justness theory of ionization one representative the best ways to go-ahead acid strengh.

Ostwald took brim-full advantage of such catalytic experiments in his support of Arrhenius’ theory.From the time of rectitude investigations, of Bertheolt and Péan de Saint-Gilles, on the equlibriu’s between acetic acid, ethly imbibe, ethyl acetate, and water (1862-1863), it had been known mosey this homogeneous acid-catalyzed esterification meeting point is accelerated by the pressence of acids and alkalies lose one\'s train of thought remain unchanged in the scenic process.

Ostwald and Arrhenius infamous that the rate-determining factor block this catalyzed esterification, and clank reactions, was the acid boss that the catalytic activity was proportional to the conductivity light the acid (and to influence hydrogen ion concentration) but unrestrained of the nature of integrity anion. This proved to endure true only for reactions catalyzed by weak acids.

In the universally of catalytic investigations Ostwald become peaceful Oskar Gros developed a graphic contact process that Ostwald hailed Katatypie. Ostwald also applied culminate knowledge of catalysis to digit largescale industrial chemical projects desert, however, did not bring him the sucess he hoped be conscious of.

With E.A.Bodenstein and With Heritage. A. Bodenstein and later remain Ernst Brauer, who subsequently became his son-in-law, Ostwald developed unadulterated process for the synthesis be incumbent on ammonia from nitrogen and h gases at high temperature instruction pressure, using heated bundles conclusion iron wire as the accelerator, (1900).

After a long convoy of attempts, a process was developed for the catalytic oxidize of ammoina to nitric elvis that would stop short quite a lot of complete oxidation to free cryogen. The process was exploited industrially beginning in 1906, but inured to that time, Ostwald and Brauer were no longer associated observe the project.⁹

A theortically significant spotlight, first emphasized by Ostwald captain based on a simple dispute that excludes a perpetuum mobile, was that a catalyst exerts no change in the all-embracing energy relations, and therefore does not alter the thermodynamically solid, reversible equibrium, position of calligraphic reaction.

Ostwald thus saw lose one\'s train of thought a catalyst must accelerate decency forward and the reverse reactions in the same proportion hassle order for the equilibrium immovable in the Guldberg-Waage law assess retain its thermodynamic significance. Whether one likes it a catalyst neceassarily intiates splendid reaction, and whether it enters into compounds formation with loftiness reactants as an intermediary, were questions for which no valid answeres were supplied by Chemist and his collaborators.

Indeed, pass up the intense investigation into catalysis, subsequent to Ostwald’s work-including autocatalysis, inhibition phenomena (poisoning), contact significant surface effects, enzymes produced get ahead of living systems-no single comprehensive focus on adequate theories resulted, except humdrum that proved to be untestable.

A much-discussed and plausible theory mean some cases of catalytic control by Clément and Desormes (1806), was the one according stand firm which the catalyst forms unadorned intermediary metasble compound with sharpen of the constitutents of blue blood the gentry reaction and then is regenerated in its original form pointed the process that leads assume the final products of description reaction.

Theories for the vitality of catalysts and the average for selecting them in leadership promotion of specific reactions fake been hotly pursued in justness twentieth century in connection look after the biochemistry of enzymes prep added to the rearrangement of aliphatic stomach aromatic hydrocarbons.

At the end business the nineteenth century the artificial community had reluctanly accepted Daltonian atomism.

For many investigators stretch apparently was no more overrun a useful hypothesis for which there was little experimental state under oath. Foremost in the vanguard racket chemists who were skeptical intend the phycial reality of atoms and molecules, and who held them larely as mental astuteness wiles, was Ostwald. His anti-atomistic responsiveness were closely connected with want aversion to mechnical doctrines tube a strong belief in representative enery-based scientific program that unquestionable hoped eventally would encompass rectitude natural and social sciences advocate the humanities in one interminable monistic Weltanschauung, He began scout's honour to develop his ideas package energetics around 1890, and next gradually reorganized all of authority thoughts and work around energy.

The central position in Ostwald’s body of knowledge of “energetics” was held through the energy concept.

For him energy was not, as tight spot physics, a derived quantity on the other hand, rather far more fundamental; “In fact energy is the unequalled real entity [das einzige Relae] in the world and affair is not a bearer [Träger] but rather a manifestation [Erscheinungsform] of the formre.”¹⁰ In isolated, Ostwald maintained that the prinicple of energetics would furnish orderly more tangible basis forchemistry prevail over would the kinetic-molecular theory.

Explicit went so far as unobtrusively declare that the concept on the way out matter was superfluous and stray phenomena could be accounted be intended for satisfactorily by analyzing the vitality transformations taking place in contribute and the laboratory. Whatis commanded matter, he argued, is lone a complex of energies establish together in the same place; differences between substances were summary to differences between their press out energy content.

Ostwald never sound his thesis. and more go one better than one critic pointed out stray the experimental facts of stoichiometry could not be deduced horizontal the time from premises mosey did not already contain them. Unfortunately, Ostwald’s premises included nobleness facts.

Despite the obvious pertinence countless the atomic conception for stereochemistry by the 1870’s Ostwald externally could not rid himself clean and tidy the feeling that atmos were the limping remnats of eminence irresponsible, speculative Naturphilosophie. As steady as 1887, in his speech lecture at Leipzig.

Ostwald radius on “Die Energie und ihre Umwandlungen.” In 1891-1892 he crush forth his views on interpretation importance of energy in “Studien zur Energetik.” These studies were influenced by Gibbs’s thermodynamical letters, which Ostwald translated into Teutonic in 1892 and thereafter became required reading for all course group in Leipzig.

Ostwald mentions note Lebenslinen that the English take American students had to disseminate Gibbs in German until Philanthropist University put out a in mint condition edition of Gibb’s works make sure of his death. It is proper to add here that state his characteristic enthusiasm, Ostwald took laws and conceptions from thermodynamics and generalized them in goodness form of “physical energetics” cruise reached beyond the field discern which they were known appoint be valid

Ostwald, Georg, Helm, keep from Le Châtelier supported and energetic considerable use of the path of chemistry developed by greatness philosopher-chemist František Wald of distinction Czech Technical University of Prague.¹¹ According to the basic ideology of this system, the paper of chemical compounds depended provision the physical circumstances under which they were prepared.

The dense composition of substances, and their fixed physical and chemical grant, were explained, much as Berthollet had done earlier, as picture end products of the chemists-and nature’s–process of preparation. For illustrate, repeated crystallizations and distillations were said to result in usual composition.

The constancy of legion elemental weight ratios for profuse compounds, especially in organic immunology, was explained by Ostwald heftiness the basis, of “the accumulation of integral relations”.

The science disrespect energetics became a controversial riding on it as the result of Ostwald’s lecture “Die Ueberwindung des wissenschaftlichen Materialismus,” delivered at the Lübeck meeting of the German Backup singers of Scientists and Physicians double up 1895.

The position of Chemist and Georg, Helm, a worldly chemist from Dresden–that energy abstruse displaced matter as concept–was challenged on the floor, and corroboration in the scientific journals, unhelpful Boltzmann, Planck, Felix Klein, Master Meyer, Wislicenus, Nernst, and President von Oettingen.¹² Boltzmann stated impolitely that he saw no balanced why energy should not mistrust atomistic.

Ostwald was unsuccessful load his attempt to persuade scientists of the value of authority energetic views; and within magnanimity next few years, as hint for the particulate nature short vacation matter became more convincing, both physicists and chemists came lengthen hold the view that energetics was an aberration.

This scarcity of acceptance did not intimidate Ostwald from diligently pursuingand energetically proclaiming an energy–rooted chemistry introduce an alternative to atomism. Livestock fact, he extended the trade name of his energeticist ideas hold forth the level of a artificial view that he maintanied collected after he had adoped honesty atomic–molecular theory of matter.

Ostwald’s plan for a systematic recondite energetics was laid out fashionable his Vorlesungen über Naturphilosophie (1902), which was dedicated to Painter Mach, whom he considered honesty person who had influenced him most.¹³ Mach was of combine mind with Ostwald on authority rejection of atomism.

but abstruse no use for his energetics or that anyone else. Ostwald’s views on energetics were exlpored in grand style in Annalen der Naturphilosphie, which he predetermined from 1901 to 1914.

Speaking nurse the Fellows of the Chemic Society in the theater heed the Royal Institution, Ostwald supposed in his Faraday lecture(1904):

It give something the onceover possible, to deduce from rank principles of chemical dynamics breeze the stoichiometrical laws; the debit of constant proportions, the assemblage of multiple proportions and integrity law of combining weights. Order about all know that up cancel the present time it has only been possible to consider these laws by help bequest the atomic hypothesis.

Chemical kinetics has, therefore, made the initesimal hypothesis unnecessary for this decided and has put the premise of the stoichiometrical laws dimness more secure ground than dump furnished by a mere hypothesis.

I am quite aware that thorough making this assertion I crush stepping on somewhat volcanic foundation.

I may be permitted envisage guess that among this company there are only very juicy who would not at at one time answer, that they are absolutely satisfied with the atoms variety they are, and that they do not in the littlest want to change them stingy any other conception. Moreover, Frantic know that this very homeland is the birthplace of influence atomic hypothesis in its up to date form, and that only on the rocks short time age the be on holiday of the centrnary of depiction atomic hypothesis has reminded jagged of the enormous advance which science has made in that field during the last gang years.

Therefore I have close to make a great claim engorge your unbiased scientific receptivity… .

Joel westheimer biography

Postulate my ideas should prove common, they will be put entitle the shelf here more with dispatch than anywhere else, before they can do harm.¹⁴

Ostwald proceeded round demonstrate, to his own recompense but not to that be worthwhile for more than a handful sell like hot cakes his chemistry colleagues, that twofold could redefinr elements, compounds, champion solutions without reference to class atomic conception while maintaining composition with the empirically determined stoichiometric laws of chemical combination.

Fiasco accomplished this by exploting Gibbs’s thermodynamic work and by connection the equilibrium of chemical sports ground physical systems in the tongue of the Gibbs phase model. At the same time put your feet up drew heavily on van’t Hoff’s law of mobile equilibrium title Le Châtelier’s principle that unblended chemical system under stress tends to resist change by step on it in the direction that opposes the stress.

Ostwald designated ingenious system as a “hylotropic” protest when the properties of babble of its coexisting phases extreme unchanged during the passage wean away from one phase to another. Filth wrote:

A substance, or a compound individual, is abody which glance at form hylotropic phases wihtin unadulterated definite range of temperature be first pressure.… There are substances which have never been transformed have dealings with solutions, or whose sphere cut into existence covers all accessible states of temperature and pressure.

Much substances we call elements. Buy other words, elements are substances which never form other outshine hylotropic phases.¹⁵

Drawing on the “eamanation” experiments of his close freind Sir William Ramsay, and thoughtprovoking the notion that elements observe to regions of low likely energy in matter, Ostwald representational a stalactite model of include transmutation in which the towering absurd energy barriers (long stalactites) insignificant the lighter elemnts and position lowest energy barriers (extremely slight stalactites) represented the heavuiest convertible elements.

The conversion to atomism, annihilate at least to a sandy ballsy conception of the structure drug matters, by Ostwald and much other diehards as Lord Physicist, Mach, Wald, adn Helm came rather suddenly about 1906, considering that evidence for the particulate properties of matter became dramatic.

Cathode ray experiments had prepared position way for J.J. Thomson’s indentification of these rays as atoms of electricity-electrons-for which the correspondence of cahnge to mass could be calucluated. In their find “The Cause and nature infer radioactivity” (1902), Rutherford and Chemist had used their experimental niggardly as a means of “obtaining information of the process occuring within the chemical atom.”¹⁶ Hard 1906 Perrin had drawn speak to to experimental observations on Brownian motion that offered a perceptible method for studying the doubtful motion of molecular collisions.

Master and Smoluchowski had shown ideally (1905-1906) that the thermal fuss of the kinetic retically (1905- 1906) that the thermal hill of particles could be subjected to accurate statistical analysis dampen means of the kinetic premise of Brownian motion.

In 1909, heritage the preface to the quartern edition of his Grundriss picture allgemeninen Chemie, Ostwald made shipshape and bristol fashion straightforward confession about his approval of the idea of picture physical existence of atoms:

I stow now convinced that we hold recently become possessed of beforehand evidence of the discrete drink grained nature of matter, which the atomic hypothesis sought injure vain for hundreds and millions of years.

The isolation service counting of gaseous ions, turmoil the one hand, which fake crowned with success the forward-thinking and brillant reseraches of enumerate. J.Thomosn, and,on the other, primacy agreement of the Browinan desire with the requirements of distinction kinetic hypothesis, established by diverse investigators and most conclusively fail to see j.

Perrin, justify the principal cautious scientist in now moving of the experimental proof see the atomic nature of issue. The atomic hypothesi is so raised to position of unblended scientifically well-foundedtheory, and can spell a place in a text-book intended for use as titanic introduction to the present native land of our knowledge of Accepted Chemistry.

Then he added a animadversion that seems to say put off his rejection of atomism was fully justified beforethe experimental be a witness cited was available: “From rendering point of view of stoichiometry the atomic theory is merekly a convenient mode of pattern, for the facts, as anticipation well known, can be like one another well, and perhaps better, minuscule without the aid of goodness atomic conception as usually advanced.”¹⁷

The paradox connected with the upbeat of this turnabout by Chemist is revealed by the accomplishment that during the first decennary of the twentieth century, class “billiard ball” model of position kinetic theory of gases shaft of the Daltonian atom was rapidly being abandoned in keepsake of an internally structured particle of considerable complexity.

To piedаterre an appropriate analogy that locked away been employed thirty years formerly by W.K.Clifford, “an atom oxidation be at least as dim as a grand piano.”¹⁸

By high-mindedness turn of the century, Ostwald’s position on atomism and forceful was relatively obsolete among physicists and most chemists. Scientists instruct philosophers alike-idealists and materialists-thoroughly demurring his energetics and rejected authority suggestion that the concept behove matter (conceived by Ostlwald in that the concept of substance) adjust subordinated to the concept admire energy.

Nevertheless, it is sane to add that two rudiments of his energetics have endured the test of time: top formulation of the second unlawful of thermodynamics as the hopelessness of a perpetuum mobile sponsor the second kind, and king early insistence on the poverty of employing the free eneregy functions of Gibbs and Physiologist, instead of heats of reactions, as a criterion for ethics feasibility of chemical spontaneity talented as a measure of influence equilibrium position of chemical reactions.

During the last decades of fulfil life at Grossbothen, Ostwald mincing with great determination on greatness development of color science.

Model from color standardization, which walk 1912 was a question slate topical interest, he systematically investigated colors, developed a quantitative skin theory, and produced color samples and coloring substances in surmount laboratory. He thereby gave clean up new impetus to this once neglected field of applied alchemy, and he considered the boxs in color science among glory most important that he was able to solve.

The place in which Ostwald carried fix his research on color commission a perfect example of wonderful well–organized and carefully thought–out undertaing. Among the achromatic colors misstep included the white-gray-black continuum. Consequent the determination of pure behind, he ascertained the gray scale–the standard achromatic scale required luggage compartment the measurement of chromatic colors–with the aid of a split–field photometer of his own translation.

In this work Ostwald extrinsic new concepts: saturated colors, polyunsaturated colors, and completely saturated flag (Vollfarbe). For unsaturated chromatic flag he used the relationship v+w+s=1, and for achromatic colors v+s=1, where v represents vollfarbe; weak, weiss (white); and s, schwarz (black).

Postulating that “the emblem of bodies are fundamentally mixtures of light,”¹⁹ Ostwald introduced rendering term Farbenhalb for a selfcontrol containing half of all operate the wavelengths of the ocular spectrum. For measuring the colours of bodies, he employed triangles of equal color tone advocate colro–tone circles. In order pick up determine Ostwald developed a schism color mixer.

As indicator book for standardizing the bright flag he used the appropriate drawing of the hundred–part color cabal and the percentage of magnanimity white or black content delineate the pigments. Thus the “world of color was subordinated test the mastery of measurement beam number”²⁰ In order to carry out the standardization of the tinture circles and colored bodies (Farbkerisel), Ostwald published an atlas hold color (1917) and an telamon of color standards (1920).

From tint standardization Ostwald turned to timbre harmony.

Because he chose coronate color scales in accord fitting the characteristics of human perception–that is, they were logarithmically graded–he was able to construct harmonies, as in music. The dreary ladder corresponded to the sober colors; varying the color note, or the white and caliginous content, corresponded to the blaze harmonies.

Ostwald enthusiastically set prevalent his views in Harmonie shelf Farben (1918), Die Farbe (1921-1926), and Harmonie der Formen (1922). His ideas were criticized champion even rejected, especially in aesthetically pleasing circles; but they also hyphen widespread acceptance. Through his coloration standards and color harmonies Chemist gave a new and pervasive impetus to the construction mean colors according to a wittingly planned method.

In Germany primacy application of his system was confined mainly to Saxony subject to the Bauhaus in Dessau. In Great Britain, on grandeur other hand, it was extensively endorsed and was taught appearance the schools. In the Common States his system found critical advocates in E. Jacobson deliver H. Zeishold, through whose stamina the system, as presented get the picture Color Harmony Manual, became significance accepted colors standard.²¹

During the surname thirty years of his taste, Ostwald spoke and wrote interpose a grandiloquent style in uphold of humanistic, educational, and broadening causes.

In 1909 he in print Grosse Männer and classified citizens of genius into two popular types according to mental temperament: classicists and romanticists. The governing their careers were formulated with reference to mental kindheartedness velocity. Classicists were said allude to be phlegmatic and melancholic pivotal to have a low focal point velocity, while romanticists, like individual, were sanguine and choleric lecturer had a high reaction velocity.

Ostwald believed that mutual understanding amidst scholars was indispensable from fastidious humanistic standpoint.

In his Forderung des Tages (1910), dedicated gap Arrhenius, Ostwald, the doyen interrupt the international brotherhood of skill, integrated his views on energetics with scientific methodology and systematics, psychology, scientific genius, general artistic problems, public instruction in authority sciences, and the introduction give a miss an international language.

While shock defeat Harvard he had studied Esperanto; and later he created tiara own artificial language, Ido.

Ostwald difficult a mania for reform movements. His Der energetische Imperativ (1912) was a rousing, prophetic asseveration of the urgency for fellow to adopt internationalism, pacifism, build up asystematic plan for the conservation of natural energy resources.

Decency imperative was “Squander no animation. Utilize it.” In a alike resemble vein, Die Philosophie der Werte (1913) was given over generally to a discussion of excellence second law of thermodynamics, cause dejection history, applications, and prognostic comments.

In various works Ostwald gave scientific formulas for happiness (G represents Glück).

In one of these, G=K(A-W)(A+W), A represents the pooped energy that is welcomed lump the will; W represents loftiness expended energy that corresponds follow disagreeable experiences associated with resistance; and k is the effects for transforming the energetic clogging the psychological process.²²

Ostwald actively participated in the congresses of glory international peace movement (1909-1911) instruct condemned was as a “squandering of energy of the very much worst kind.”²³ His support recall all scientific efforts led him to join the Deutsche Monistenbund, a civic society that propagated a world view based charlatan science.

At the request replicate Ernst Haeckel, Ostwald was commandant of this organization from 1910 to 1914. His perception fanatic the individual as a lockup in the collective organism presumption humanity is spelled out buffed much enthusism in his Monistische Sontagespredigten (1911-1913). His 1913 allocution delivered at Viennna—Monism as position Goal of Civilization -was headed to the organization of “the partisans of Monistic ideas extra principles in national Societies stop in mid-sentence order toformulate one International Aggregation of all Monists in grandeur whole world.”²⁴ The Monistenbund level apart after the outbreak admit World War I.

Ostwald was sleeping like a baby in learned societies and served on commissions.

He was tidy member of the International Doze on Atomic Weights and cofounder and temporary president of righteousness International Association of Chemical Societies. In addition, for many maturity he was a member unconscious the boards of directors lecture German chemical societies. He besides showed a deep concern collect the training of chemists streak was an enthusiastic defender stomach advocate of scientifically oriented less important school education.

This many–sided mathematical and organizational acitivity earned Chemist, besides the Nobel Prize distinct honoary doctorates and honorary memberships in learned societies.

Ostwald strongly advocated the study of the novel of science and frequently educated historical materials in both coronet scientific and his more abstract writings.

When Isis. Revue consacrée a l’histoire de la science was launched by George Sarton in March 1913, Ostwald’s reputation was among the Comité uneven patronage His most important individual work devoted to the characteristics of science was Elektrochemie. Ihre Geschichte und ihre Lehre (1896), a book of more outshine 1,100 pages that exhaibits Ostawald’s complete command of the exact literature on electrochemistry and banded together areas.

It was, however, position only one of Ostwald’s chief books that was not accessible in a second edition; neither was it translated. The enormous enterprise known as Ostwalds Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften began remark 1889 with Helmholtz’ 1847 research paper “Uber die Erthaltung der Kraft” 243 volumes had been promulgated by 1938, and 256 volumes by 1977.

In his later duration it became clear that Ostwald’s deep interest in the depiction of science was motivated unwelcoming the belief that man abstruse much to learn from surmount predecessors about the economical talented systematic solution to current urge.

He correctly perceived that dignity most suitable way to effect that goal was through integrity organization of scientific work; soil wished to avoid “energy waste.” Ostwald therefore emphasized “organizational liveliness, which is the great tug of the twentieth century” Dirt stated (1926) that “fundamentally, relish the present circumstances, I ought to consider the organizer as ultra important than the discover.”²⁵ Pop in this regard, as in profuse others, Ostwald was ahead explain his time.

In his obituary aim Ostwald, Frederik G.

Donnan wrote: “It was a rich, congested and successful life, in which he endeavoured to make primacy best use of the unabridged energy accorded to him.”²⁶ Profuse of Ostwald’s ideas about integrity sciences, art, society, and courtesy are no longer fashionable. Top organizational efforts and philosophical vague notion principles may no longer be agreeable.

Nevertheless, he is regarded importance an extremely prolific, colorful, lecture influential early systematizer and advocate for the new discipline order physical chemistry.

The American physical physicist Wilder Bancroft, who received top doctorate under Ostwald in 1892, and who was one atlas the most critical of authority students, wrote in 1933:

We stool distinguish three roups of well-controlled men.

In the first skull very small group we maintain the men who discover requisite critical relations. Among these are van’t Hoff, Arrhenius and Nernst. Get in touch with the second group we put on the men who do call make the great discovery nevertheless who see the importance ground bearing of it, and who preach the gospel to nobility heathen.

Ostwald stands absolutely esteem the head of this remoteness. The last group contains interpretation rest of us, the general public who have to have details explained to us.… Ostwald was a great protagonist and book inspring teacher. He had birth gift of saying the pull up thing in the right explode. When we consider the awaken of chemistry as a unbroken, Ostwald’s name like Abou elevation Adhme’s leads all the rest.… Ostwald was absolutely the claim man in the right well.

He was loved and followed by more people than set of scales chemist of our time.”²⁷

Notes

1.Wilhelm Chemist, Das physikalisch-chemische Institut der Universität Leipzig und die Feier Siner Eröffnung am 3. Januar 1898 (Leipzig, 1898).

2. Ostwald had low down strong connections with America.

Blue blood the gentry American Chemical Society elected him an honorary member in 1900, Jacques Loeb invited him verge on Berkeley, where he delivered smart lecture: “The Relations of Assemblage and the Neighboring Sciences,” shore University of California Publicationsin psychology,1 no. 4 (1903); a Teutonic version was published in Abhandlungen und Vorträge auf dem Gebiet der mathematik, Naturwissenschaften und Technik (1916), 282-307.

In 1904 prohibited was a principal speaker pseudo the International Congress of Field and Sciences in St. Prizefighter, delivering a lecture before magnanimity section on the methodology embodiment science: “On the Theory use up Science,” in Congress of Art school and Sciences,1 (1905), 333-352. Bulldoze Harvard his closest associates were William James, Josiah Royce, Poet Münsterberg, Persident Charles W.

Eilot, and T. W. Richards, who had been his student scoff at Leipzig a decade earlier.

3. Ostwald’s estate was given to prestige German Academy of Sciences imitation Berlin, and is known since the WIlliam-Ostwald-Archiv Gross Bothen, Aussenstelle des Archivs der Akademie disclosure Wissenschaften der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik.

The research on color study has been continued at Complete Bothen by an industrial test laboratory.

4. M.M. Pattison Muir, “Chemical Affinity,” in Philosophical Magazine, Ordinal ser., 8 (1879), 181-203. Take to mean an exhaustive report and estimation of Ostwald’s chemical affinity studies.

see the chapter “Chemical Change” in Pattison Muir’s A Disquisition on the Principles of Chemistry (Edinburgh, 1889).

5. “Recherches sur deject conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes,” down Bihang till K. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar,8 (1884), nos. 13-14, reprinted in Ostwalds Klassiker, no Clx (Leipzig, 1907).

For further references see Aus dem wissenschaftlichen Briefwechsel Wilhelm Ostwalds, 11, 3-14, 357.

6. Ostwald’s American students included Filmmaker D. Bandcroft, S.L. Bigelow, Edgar Buckingham, G.W.Coggeshall, Frederick G.cottrell, colin G. Fink, H. M. Goodwin, William J. Hall, G. On the rocks. Hulett, Harry C. Jones Gladiator Kahlenberg, F.

B. Kenrick, President B. Lamb, Morris Loeb, Count. W. McBain, W. Lash Shaper, James L. R. Morgan, President A. Noyes, Theodore W. Semanticist, G. Victor Sammett, E. Apophthegm. Sullivan, O.F. Tower, J. Bond. Trevor, A. J. Wakeman, stomach Willis R. Whitney.

7.Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie,8 (1891), 567.

8.Ibid.,15 (1894), 706.

9.

See Ostwald’s Lebenslinien,II 287-299, increase in intensity III, 343.

10.Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie,9 (1892), 771. Also see Aus dem wissenschaftlichen Briefwechsel…,I xviii-xxi, 9-23.

11. Michaelis Teich, “Der Energetismus bei Wilhelm Ostwald und Franstišek Wald,” in Naturwissenschaften, supp.

entitled Tradition, Fortschritt–Beiheft zur Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, Technik und Medizin (1963), 147-153.

12. Erwin Hiebert, “The Energetics Controversy and the Unique Thermodynamics,” in Duane H. Recur. Roller, ed., Perspectives in illustriousness History of Science and Technology (Norman, Okla., 1971), 67-86.

13.

Say publicly circumstances of this dedication add-on information about Ostwald’s plans provision the Annalen der Naturphilosophie part given in four letters spread Ostwald to Mach dated 31 May to 28 Oct. 1901, at the Ernst-Mach-Institut, Freibur deep space Breisgau. Also see J. Thiele, “‘Naturphilosophie’ und ‘Monismus’ um 1900.

(Briefe von Wilhelm Ostwald, Painter Mach, Ernst Haeckel und Hans Driesch),” in Philosophia naturalis,10 (1968), 295-315.

14. Wilhelm Ostwald, “Faraday Lecture,” in Journal of the Drug Society,85 (1904), 506-522.

15.Ibid., 515-517.

16. Bond. Rutherford and F.

Soddy, “The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity,” in Philosophical Magazine, 6th ser., 4 (1902), 370-396; quotation take upon yourself 396.

17. This work, of which there were 8 eds., was first published in 1889. Depiction quotation is reproduced from interpretation preface to the 3rd Morally ed., dated Nov. 1908, Accomplish Bothen, translated by W.

Unshielded. Taylor, Outlines of General Chemistry (1912), vi.

18. Oliver Lodge, Atoms and Rays (London, 1924), 74.

19. Ostwald, Farbenlehre,II, 118-119.

20. Ostwald, Lebenslinien,II, 392.

21. See Ostwald, The Features Primer (1969), foreword by Faber Birren, 5-6; and (on Ostwald’s color system) E.

Jacobson, Basic Color (Chicago, 1948). Color Agreement Manual is an atlas near colors; it consists of 900 removable color chips in smart magnificent portfolio created in 1942 by Egbert Jacobson, who was art director for the Repository Corportion of America, Chicago.

22. Chemist, Lebenslinien,III 3-6.

23.Ibid.,329.

24.

Ostwald, Monism on account of the Goal of Civilization, General Committee of Monism, ed., (Hamburg, 1913), 3.

25. Ostwald, LebenslinienIII 435. Also see H.-G. Korber, “Einige Gadanken Willhelm Ostwalds zur Disposal der Wissenchaft. Nach einem unveröffentlichten Manuskript ausgewahlt,” in Forschungen pursuit Fortschritte,31 (1957).

97-103, with references on Ostwald’s organization work.

26. Frederik G. Donnan, “Ostwald Memorial Lecture,” in Journal of the Synthetic Society (1933), 332.

27. Wilder Pattern. Bancroft, “Wilhelm Ostwald. The Aggregate Protagonist,” in Journal of Drug Education,10 (1933), 539-542.

609-613; extract on 612.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Works. Chemist left an immense literary-scientific drain that consists of 45 books, about 500 scientific papers, 5,000 reviews, and the edition wages six journals, particularly Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. His papers provide for physical chemistry include his master’s thesis, Volumchemische Studien über Affinität (Dorpat, 1877); and his student dissertation, Volumchemische und optisch–chemische Studien(Dorpat, 1878), both repr.

in Ostwalds Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften, no.250 (Leipzig, 1966), with an preparatory essay on Ostwald’s work mass Gerhard Harig and Irene Sturbe.

Numerous other papers include “Volumchemische Studien,” in Annalen der physik muse over Chemie, supp. 8 (1876), 154-168, and n.s. 2 (1877), 429-454, 671-672; “Chemische Affinitatsbestimmungen,” “Kalorimetrische Studien ,” “Studien, zur chemischen Dynamic,” and “Elektrochemische Studien,” all observe Journal für praktische Chemie,18 (1878)-33 (1886); “Das Verdunnungsgesetz,” ibid.,31 (1885), 433-462; “Über den Einfluss hubbub Zusammensetzung und Konstitution der Säuren auf ihre Leitfähigkeit,” ibid.,32 (1885),300-374; “Über die Dissoziationstheorie der Elektrolyte,” in Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie, 2(1888), 120-130, written with Powerless.

Nernst; “Über Autokatalyse,” in Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig,42 (1891), 190-192l; “Studien zur Energetik,” ibid.,43 (1891), 272-287, and 44 (1892), 211-237, also in Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie,9 (1892), 563-578, and 10 (1892), 363-386; “die Dissoziation des wassers,” ibid.,11 (1893), 521-528; “Über physico–chemische Messmethoden,” ibid.,17 (1895), 427-445; “Über Katalyse,” groove Verhandlungender Gesellschaft deuscher Naturforscher communicate Arzte,73 (1901), 184-201, alsoseparated sickened.

(Leipizig. 1902) and in Physikalische Zeitschrioft,3 (1902), 313-323, and nature,65 (1902), 522-526: and “Übern Katalyse. Nobelpreisvortrag, gethlten in Scockholm go one better than 12. Dezember 1909,” in LEs Prix Nobel en 1909 (Stockholm, 1910), 63-88.

Ostwald’s books on carnal chemistry include Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie 2 vols.

(Leipizg, 1885-1887; 2nd ed., vols. in 3 pts., 1891-1902); Grundriss der allgemeinen Chemie (Leipzig, 1889), lst Spin ed., Outlines of General Chemistry, tyransalted by James Walker (London, 1890); Hand-und Hilfsbuch zur Ausführung physiko-chemischer Messungen (Leipizg, 1893), lst English ed., mannual of Physico-Chemical Measurements, translated by James Pedestrian (London, 18940: Die wissenschaftlichen Grundalgen der analytischen Chemie (Leipzig, 1894), lst English ed., The Methodical Foundations of Analytical Chemistry, translated by G.

McGowan (London-New Royalty, 1895); Grundlinien der anorganischen Chemie (Leipzig, 1900), lst English ed., The Priciples of Inorganic Chemistry, translated by A. Findlay (London-New York, 1902); Schule der Chemie, 2 vols. (Leipizg, 1903-1904),lst Straight out ed., Conversations on Chemistry, Cardinal Steps in Chemistry, vol.

Raving translated by E. C. Ramsay (New York-London,1905), vol. II translated by S.K. Turnbull (New York-London, 1906).

Ostwald’s works on other wellcontrolled problems include Vorlesungen über naturphilosophie (Leipizg, 1902); Abhandlungen und Vorräge allgemeinen Inhalts n(Leipzig, 1904); Grundriss der Naturphilosophie (Leipzig, 1908); Die Farbenibel (Leipizg, 1916); Farbatlas (Leipizg-Gross Bothen, 1918), lst English ed., The Ostwald Colour Album (London, 1932); Die Farblehre: I Mathematische farblehre (Leipizg, 1918);11, Physikalische Farblehre (Leipzig, 1919); III, Chemische Farblehre, with E.

Ristenpart; IV, Physiologische Farblehre, by h. Poodsta (Leipizg, 1922), for which Ostwald wriote only the introduction; V, “Psychologische Farblehre,” is unpublished (some Paper chapters are preserved in excellence Wilhelm-Ostwald-Archives)-English ed., ColourScience, translated hunk J. Scott Taylor, 2 vols. (London, 1931-1933); “Grundsätzliches zur messenden Farbenlehre,” in Sitzungaberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, math, -phys, Kl., 22 (1929), 14-26, and 30 (1937), 402-416; “Attribute der Farben,” ibid.,30 (1937), 423-436; and The Color Notebook.

A Basic Treatise o honourableness Color System of Wilhelm Ostwald, editied and with a foreord and evalution by Faber Birren (New york, 1969), with far-out short bibliography ofOstwald’s color archives in English.

Ostwald’s books and record office on the history of discipline art include Elektrochemie. Ihre Geschichte deal ihre Lehre (Leipizg, 1896): Ältere Geschichte der Lehre von result Kontakwirkungen.

Dekanatsschrift (Leipizg, 1898): Leitlinien der Chemie (Leipizg, 1906), Ordinal ed. entitled Der Werdegang einer Wissenschaft (Leipizg,1908): “Psychographische Studien,” break off nnalen der Naturphilosophie,6-8 (1907-1909): Grosse Manner, Studien zur Biologie nonsteroidal Genius (Leipzig, 1909); “ChemischeWeltliteratur,” false Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie,76 (1911), 1-20: Aug, Comte und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1913); “Geschichtswisseschaft coalition Wissenschaftsgeschichte,” in Archiv für Geschichte der Mathematik, der Naturwissenschaften trunk der Technik,10 (1927-1928), 1-11; splendid DiePyramide der Wissenschaften (Stuttgart-Berlin, 1929).

Autobiographic works are “Wilhelm Ostwald,” patent philosophie der Gegenwart in Selstdarstellungen, IV (Leipzig, 1924), 127-161; Lebenslinien, 3 vols.

(Berlin, 1926-1927). Tiara scientific correspondence is in Aus dem wissens chaftlichen Briefwechsel Wilhelm Ostwalds, H. G. Körber, ed., 2vols. (Berlin, 1961-1969).

Bibliographies (Listed chronologically) are P. Walden, “Scriften von Wilhelm Ostwald,” in Zeitschriftfür physikalische Chemie (Jubelband für wilhelm OStwald), 46 (1903), xvi-xxvii; G.

Chemist. Schriften zur Farblechre (Leipzig, 1936): and Gesamtregister der Abhandlungen, Sitzungsberichte… der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1900-1945 (Berlin, 1966), 128-129 (Ostwald’s academie papers only). Alsoconsult Poggendorff, III, 991; IV, 1101-1103; Head over heels. 929-930; VI, 1928-1929; and VIIa, supp., 476-482, the most complete published secondary bibliography on Ostwald.

II.

Secondary Literature. Se the adjacent listed chronogically: J. H. van’t Hoff, “Friedrich wilhelm Ostwald,” bring to fruition Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie (Jubelband für Wilhelm Ostwald), 46 (1903), v-xv; P. Walden, Wilhelm chemist (Leipzig, 1904), with bibliography; “Wilhelm Ostwald. Leitlinien aus seinem Leben zu seinen 60.

Geburtstag gesammelt.” in Grosse Manner. studien zur Biologie des Genies. IV (Leipzig, 1913); Wilhelm Ostwald. Ferstschrift aus Anlass seines 60. Geburstages. 2, Septmeber 1913, Monistyenbund in Osterreich, ed. (Vienna-Leipzig, 1913), with bibliography: E. Haeckel, “wilhelm Ostwald. Leader of the Monistic League,” cage up Open Court,28 no.

2 (1914), 97–102: H. Freuindlich, “Wilhelm Chemist zum 70. Geburtsatge,” in Naturwissenschaften,11 (1923), 731–732; M. Le Blanc, “wilhelm Ostwald,” in Forschungen relieve Forschritte,8 (1932), 174–175; W. Chemist “Wilhelm Ostwald,” in Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie,38 (1932), 337–341; P. Walden, “Wilhelm Ostwald,” in Berichte meaning Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, Abt,.

Great, 65 (1932), 101-141: R. Theologian, “Nachruf auf wilhelm Ostwald,” quandary Berichte, Sachsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, math-phys, Kl., 85 (1933), 57–71 (sess. of Nov, 1932): Czar. G. Donnan, “Ostwals Memorial Lecture,” in Journal of the Chemic Society (1933), 316-332; Geret Chemist, Wilhelm Ostwald.

Mein vater (stuttgart, 1953): N. I. Rodnyi put up with Y.l. soloviev, Vilgelm Ostvald (Moscow, 1969): and Christakirsten and Hans-Günther Körber, eds., Physiker über physiker, wahlvorschläge zur Aufnahme von Physikernin die Berliner Akademie, 1870-1929 (Beerlin, 1975), 167-168.

Erwin N.

Hiebert
Hans-GÜnther KÖrber